المصادر:
نُشرت هذه الدراسة في مجلة المستقبل العربي العدد 551 في كانون الثاني/يناير 2025.
إنجي محمد مهدي: أستاذ في كلية الاقتصاد والعلوم السياسية – جامعة القاهرة.
شيماء محمود كامل عبد الله: باحثة دكتوراه في العلوم السياسية كلية الاقتصاد والعلوم السياسية، جامعة القاهرة.
[1] روبرت بلاكويل: هو كبير زملاء هنري أ. كيسنجر للسياسة الخارجية الأمريكية في مجلس العلاقات الخارجية.
[2] جينيفر إم هاريس: هي زميلة أولى في مجلس العلاقات الخارجية.
[3] Robert D. Blackwill and Jennifer M. Harris, War by Other Means: Geoeconomics and Statecraft (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press Belknap Press, 2016).
[4] بول ويلكينسون، مقدمة قصيرة جدًا: العلاقات الدولية، ترجمة لبنى عماد تركي (القاهرة، مؤسسة هنداوي سي آي سي، 2007)، ص 38.
[5] David A. Baldwin and Robert A. Pape, «Evaluating Economic Sanctions,» International Security, vol. 23, no. 2 (1998).
لمزيد من التفاصيل، انظر: David A. Baldwin, Economic Statecraft (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2020).
[6] Johannes Blad, «Economic Sanctions and Repression: The Effect of Economic Sanctions on Repression Conditional on Levels of Democracy,» (Uppsala University, Disciplinary Domain of Humanities and Social Sciences, Faculty of Social Sciences, Department of Peace and Conflict Research, January 2019), <https://rebrand.ly/385b72> (accessed on 18 August 2023).
[7] Bryan R. Early and Keith Preble, «Grand Strategy and the Tools of Economic Statecraft,» in: Thierry Balzacq and Ronald R. Krebs (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Grand Strategy (New York; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2021), chap. 23.
[8] يونس محمد مصطفى، «النظرية العامة لعدم التدخل في شؤون الدول،» (أطروحة دكتوراه، جامعة القاهرة، كلية الحقوق، 1985)، ص 22.
[9] Bernard Sitt [et al.], «Sanctions and Weapons of Mass Destruction in International Relations,» (International Group on Global Security IGGS, Geneva Centre for Security Policy, 2010), <https://www.files.ethz.ch/isn/120196/geneva_paper_16.pdf> (accessed on 16 December 2023).
[10] John Forrer, «Aligning Economic Sanctions,» Atlantic Council (October 2017), <http://www.jstor.com/stable/resrep16794> (accessed on 20 January 2023).
[11] Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978).
[12] Martin Griffiths, Terry O’Callaghan and Steven C. Roach, International Relations: The Key Concepts (London; New York: Routledge, 2002).
[13] Norman J. Padelford, «Reviewed Work: Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace. by Hans J. Morgenthau,» Political Science Quarterly, vol. 64, no. 2 (1949).
[14] جون ستيوارت ميل، أسس الليبرالية السياسية، ترجمة وتقديم وتعليق إمام عبد الفتاح إمام وميشيل متياس (القاهرة: مكتبة مدبولي، 1996)، ص 171.
[15] Kenneth N. Waltz, «Kant, Liberalism, and War,» The American Political Science Review, vol. 56, no. 2 (1962).
[16] Haans J. Freddy, «Sanctions as a Weapon of War: The European Experience,» ORF Special Report, no. 201 (December 2022), <https://www.orfonline.org/research/sanctions-as-a-weapon-of-war> (accessed on 26 February 2023).
[17] John Stremlau, «Sharpening International Sanctions: Toward a Stronger Role for the United Nations,» (A Report to the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict Carnegie Corporation of New York, November 1996), <https://rebrand.ly/p9cez66> (accessed on 23 December 2023).
[18] Nicholas Mulder, The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as Tool of Modern War (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2022).
[19] Micaela Del Monte and Elena Lazarou, «How Congress and President Shape US Foreign Policy,» European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS), March 2017, <https://rebrand.ly/76ed48>.
[20] Congressional Research Service, «Enforcement of Economic Sanctions: An Overview,» 18 March 2022, <https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF12063> (accessed on 20 December 2023).
[21] Authenticated U.S. Government Information: GOP, «Foreign Assistance Act of 1961,» Public Law 87-195; Approved September 4, 1961, January 13, 2023, <https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/COMPS-1071/pdf/COMPS-1071.pdf>, (accessed on 20 December 2023).
[22] National Archives and Records Administration, «31 C.F.R. 599, Appendix A to Chapter V,» Code of Fedral Regulations, 20 December 2022, <https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-31/subtitle-B/chapter-V/part-599> (accessed on 20 December 2023).
[23] Congressional Research Service, «Enforcement of Economic Sanctions: An Overview,» op cit.
[24] Congressional Research Service, «Sanctions Primer: How the United States Uses Restrictive Mechanisms to Advance Foreign Policy or National Security Objectives,» 6 November 2023, <https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R47829>.
[25] 50 USC 4814: Administration of Export Controls, «50-War and National Defense: Chapter 58-Export Control Reform,» 21 December 2023, <https://rebrand.ly/kldkbdt> (accessed on 22 December 2023).
[26] Jonathan Masters, «U.S. Foreign Policy Powers: Congress and the President,» Council on Foreign Relations, 2 March 2017, <https://rebrand.ly/099py2o> (accessed on 22 December 2023).
[27] عاصم إميل برقان، «العقوبات في السياسة الدولية: العقوبات الأمريكية ضد جمهورية روسيا الاتحادية نموذجًا (2014 – 2016)،» مجلة المنارة للبحوث والدراسات (جامعة آل البيت)، السنة 26، العدد 1 (2020)، ص 137.
[28] Stanley L. Engerman, «Sanctions: Neither War nor Peace,» Journal of Economic Perspectives, vol. 17, no. 2 (March 2003).
[29] Congressional Research Service, «Economic Sanctions: Legislation in the 106th Congress,» CRS Report for Congress, 15 December 2000, <https://rebrand.ly/a164ae> (accessed on 23 December 2023).
[30] Members and Committees Congress, «U.S. Sanctions: Legislation in the 117th Congress,» Congressional Research Service, 20 December 2022.
[31] Authenticated U.S. Government Information (GPO), «Public Law 117-54-Nov. 10, 2021,» 117th Congress, 135 STAT. 413, 10 November 2021, <https://rebrand.ly/a2865b> (accessed on 23 December 2023).
[32] Authenticated U.S. Government Information (GPO), «PUBLIC LAW 117–78—Dec. 23, 2021,» 117th Congress, 135 STAT. 1525, 23 December 2021, <https://rebrand.ly/160e96> (accessed on 23 December 2023).
[33] Authenticated U.S. Government Information (GPO), «Public Law 117–110—Apr. 8, 2022,» 117th Congress, 136 STAT. 1159, 8 April 2022, <https://rebrand.ly/b98f10> (accessed on 23 December 2023).
[34] Authenticated U.S. Government Information (GPO), «Public Law 117–109—Apr. 8, 2022,» Ending Importation of Russian Oil Act, 117th Congress, 136 STAT. 1154, 8 April 2022, <https://rebrand.ly/729c54> (accessed on 23 December 2023).
[35] Authenticated U.S. Government Information (GPO), «Public Law 117–51,» 117th Congress, 135 STAT. 408, 19 October 2021, <https://rebrand.ly/7420ba> (accessed on 23 December 2023).
[36] Authenticated U.S. Government Information (GPO), «Public Law 117–103,» 117th Congress, 136 STAT. 49, 15 March 2022, <https://rebrand.ly/092a7a> (accessed on 23 December 2023).
[37] Authenticated U.S. Government Information (GPO), «Public Law 117–81,» 117th Congress, 135 STAT. 1541, 27 December 2021, <https://rebrand.ly/c07e0e> (accessed on 23 December 2023).
[38] Yitan Li, «US Economic Sanctions against China: A Cultural Explanation of Sanction Effectiveness,» Asian Perspective, vol. 38, no. 2 (April-June 2014).
[39] United States General Accounting Officer (GAO), «Economic Sanctions Effectiveness as Tools of Foreign Policy,» Report to the chairman, committee on foreign relations U.S. Senate, February 1992, <https://www.gao.gov/assets/nsiad-92-106.pdf> (accessed on 7 January 2024).
[40] Robert E. Looney and Craig Knouse, «Predicting the Success of Economic Sanctions,» Naval Postgraduate School (December 1998), <https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA359130.pdf> (accessed 1 July 2024).
[41] منظمة الأمم المتحدة، «ميثاق الأمم المتحدة الفصل السابع: فيما يتخذ من الأعمال في حالات تهديد السلم والإخلال به ووقوع العدوان،» المادة 41، <https://www.un.org/ar/about-us/un-charter/chapter-7> (تاريخ الدخول 1 أيار/مايو 2024).
[42] Margaret Doxey, «International Sanctions in Theory and Practice,» Case Western Reserve University School of Law Scholarly Commons, vol. 15, no. 2 (1983), <https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/214080611.pdf> (accessed on 1 May 2024).
[43] محمد نور البصراتي، «استراتيجية العقوبات الدولية وانعکاساتها على سياسات الدول (العراق – إيران – روسيا) نموذجًا،» مجلة كلية الاقتصاد والعلوم السياسية (جامعة القاهرة)، السنة 23، العدد 3 (تموز/يوليو 2022).
[44] Weixing Hu, «The United States, China, and the Indo-Pacific Strategy: The Rise and Return of Strategic Competition,» China Review, vol. 20, no. 3 (August 2020).
[45] كيو جين، « صعود الصين: صعود الصين في العقود المقبلة سيكون له آثار بعيدة المدى وعلى العالم أن يستعد،» التمويل والتنمية (صندوق النقد الدولي)، السنة 56، العدد 2 (2019)، وكيو جين: هي مدير مركز الصين العالمي في كلية لندن للاقتصاد والعلوم السياسية.
[46] Weixing Hu, Ibid.
[47] Ned Price, «New Sanctions Under the Iran, North Korea, and Syria Nonproliferation Act (INKSNA),» US Department of the State, 24 March 2022, <https://rebrand.ly/7ybwkdh> (accessed on 30 December 2023).
[48] U.S. Department of the State, «2023 Investment Climate Statements: China,» <https://rebrand.ly/9y8mtxf> (accessed on 31 December 2023).
[49] U.S. Department of the Treasury, «Executive Order 14032 of June 3, 2021: Addressing the Threat from Securities Investments That Finance Certain Companies of the People’s Republic of China,» Presidential Documents, vol. 86, no. 107 (June 2021), <https://ofac.treasury.gov/media/99111/download?inline> (accessed on 30 December 2023).
[50] U.S. Department of the Treasury, «Treasury Sanctions Perpetrators of Serious Human Rights Abuse on International Human Rights Day,» 10 December 2021, available on: <https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy0526> (accessed on 30 December 2023).
[51] U.S. Department of the Treasury, «Treasury Designates Perpetrators of Human Rights Abuse and Commemorates the 75th Anniversary of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,» 8 December 2023, <https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/jy1972> (accessed on 30 December 2023).
[52] CRS Report, «China: U.S. Economic Sanctions,» Congressional Research Service the Library of Congress, 1 October 1997, <https://www.everycrsreport.com/reports/96-272.html> (accessed on 2 August 2023).
[53] Members and Committees of Congress, «International Trade and Finance: Overview and Issues for the 118th Congress,» Congressional Research Service: CRS Report, 24 March 2023, <https://rebrand.ly/h44xldp> (accessed on 22 December 2023).
[54] Congress Gov, «S.1092 – SECURE IP Act of 2019,» 116th Congress (2019-2020), <https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1092> (accessed on 1 January 2024).
[55] Congress Gov, «S.1634 – South China Sea and East China Sea Sanctions Act of 2019,» 116th Congress (2019-2020), <https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-bill/1634> (accessed on 1 January 2024).
[56] Congress Gov, «S.1657 – South China Sea and East China Sea Sanctions Act of 2021,» 117th Congress (2021-2022), <https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/1657> (accessed on 1 January 2024).
[57] Congress Gov, «S.591 – South China Sea and East China Sea Sanctions Act of 2023,» 118th Congress (2023-2024), <https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/senate-bill/591> (accessed on 1 January 2024).
[58] Scott Neuman, «China Threatens Response After U.S. Sanctions over Crackdown on Hong Kong,» NPR, 15 July 2020, < https://rebrand.ly/m6ti2pn> (accessed on 4 August 2023).
[59] Congress Gov, «H.R.5326 – Chinese Military and Surveillance Company Sanctions Act of 2021,» 117th Congress (2021-2022), <https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/house-bill/5326> (accessed on 1 January 2024).
[60] Congress Gov, «S.3735 – Deterring Communist Chinese Aggression against Taiwan through Financial Sanctions Act of 2022,» 117th Congress (2021-2022), <https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/3735> (accessed on 5 January 2024).
[61] Congress Gov, «S.481 – Deterring Communist Chinese Aggression against Taiwan through Financial Sanctions Act of 2023,» 118th Congress (2023-2024), <https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/senate-bill/481> (accessed on 5 January 2024).
[62] Congress Gov, «H.R.760 – Chinese Military and Surveillance Company Sanctions Act of 2023,» 118th Congress (2023-2024), <https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/760> (accessed on 1 January 2024).
[63] Congress Gov, «H.R.5923 – Iran-China Energy Sanctions Act of 2023,» 118th Congress (2023-2024), <https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/5923> (accessed on 1 January 2024).
[64] Congress Gov, «H.R.3597 – To Direct the President to Impose Sanctions on the People’s Republic of China,» 118th Congress (2023-2024), <https://www.congress.gov/bill/118th-congress/house-bill/3597>, (accessed on 5 January 2024).
[65] Eckhard Janeba, «The Export of Sanction Policies: Extraterritorial Sanctions and Geopolitical Conflict,» EconPol Forum, vol. 24 (3 May 2023), <https://rebrand.ly/0khaa17> (accessed on 9 January 2024).
[66] Tim Fist and Erich Grunewald, «Preventing AI Chip Smuggling to China,» Center for a New American Security (CNAS), 24 October 2023, <https://rebrand.ly/m03wzua> (accessed on 12 January 2024).
[67] Public-Private Analytic Exchange Program, «Rapidly Evolving Sanctions: An Alternative Analysis of Sanction Impacts on the US-China Rare Earth Elements Extractive Sector,» 2023, <https://rebrand.ly/ugvns65> (accessed on 7 January 2024).
[68] C.E. Ziegler, «Sanctions in U.S.-Russia Relations,» Vestnik RUDN International Relations, vol. 20, no. 3 (December 2020), pp. 504-520, <https://journals.rudn.ru/international-relations/article/view/24624> (accessed on 29 September 2023).
لمزيد من التفاصيل، انظر: Susanne Oxenstierna and Per Olsson, «The Economic Sanctions against Russia: Impact and Prospects of Success,» FOL, September 2015, <https://rebrand.ly/42uzm9o> (accessed on 29 September 2023).
[69] Marcin Szczepański, «Russia’s War on Ukraine: US Sanctions,» European Parliamentary Research Service (February 2023), <https://rebrand.ly/w3kkjxs> (accessed on 29 September 2023).
[70] Scott R. Anderson [et al.], «What Sanctions Has the World Put on Russia?,» Law Fare, 4 March 2022, <https://rebrand.ly/axvnpfh> (accessed on 6 January 2024).
[71] Ibid.
[72] The White House, «Fact Sheet: Biden Administration Expands U.S. Sanctions Authorities to Target Financial Facilitators of Russia’s War Machine,» 22 December 2023, <https://rebrand.ly/mqak78v> (accessed on 6 January 2024).
[73] Alexandra Kumar, Lise S. Test and Bart M. McMillan, «US Government Imposes Significant Sanctions on Russia and Adds 71 Entities to the Entity List,» 26 May 2023, <https://rebrand.ly/fcmeec9> (accessed on 6 January 2024).
[74] Ibid.
[75] U. S. Department of the State, «United States Imposes Additional Sanctions and Export Controls on Russia in Coordination with International Partners,» 19 May 2023, <https://tinyurl.com/2jkh9y2d> (accessed on 6 January 2024).
[76] Congressional Research Service, «Russia’s War on Ukraine: U.S. Policy and the Role of Congress,» Updated 30 January 2023, <https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IF/IF12277> (accessed on 7 January 2024).
[77] Congressional Research Service, «CRS Report: U.S. Sanctions on Russia,» <https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/R45415.pdf> (accessed on 29 September 2023).
[78] Ibid.
[79] Congress Gov, «H.R.1357 – Congressional Oversight of Russian Sanctions Act,» 118th Congress (2023-2024), <https://tinyurl.com/4x3tjvhf> (accessed on 6 January 2024).
[80] Congress Gov, «H.R.3246 – Sanction Russian Nuclear Safety Violators Act of 2023,» 118th Congress (2023-2024), < https://tinyurl.com/2pn2rjt6> (accessed on 22 December 2023).
[81] Congress Gov, «H.R.5512 – Russia and Belarus Financial Sanctions Act of 2023,» 118th Congress (2023-2024), <https://tinyurl.com/bdftp4bc> (accessed on 6 January 2024).
[82] Congress Gov, «S. Res. 227 – A Resolution Calling on the President to Support the Creation of an International Special Tribunal to Prosecute Russia’s Aggression against Ukraine,» 118th Congress (2023-2024), <https://tinyurl.com/bdfr55nk> (accessed on 6 January 2024).
[83] European Commission, «Sanctions Adopted Following Russia’s Military,» 5 November 2024, <https://tinyurl.com/2kkudtwc> (accessed on 19 November 2023).
[84] أحمد جلال محمود عبده، «السياسة الأمريكية تجاه التدخل العسكري الروسي في أوكرانيا وانعكاساتها على حلف الناتو،» مجلة السياسة والاقتصاد (جامعة بني سويف)، السنة 17، العدد 16 (تشرين الأول/أكتوبر 2022)، <https://jocu.journals.ekb.eg/article_264002.html> (تاريخ الدخول 17 تشرين الثاني/نوفمبر 2023).
[85] حسن أبو طالب، «سلاح العقوبات الأمريكية .. آفاق وتحديات،» مجلة آفاق استراتيجية، العدد 5 (آذار/مارس 2022).
[86] المصدر نفسه.
بدعمكم نستمر
إدعم مركز دراسات الوحدة العربية
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